Using Quotations

 

General Guidelines

When writing a response to a literature essay or a research essay, it
is absolutely essential to include quotations. No matter how brilliant
your paper, both of these types of essays are incomplete without quotations.

Quotations serve as evidence to the claims you are making in your
paper, and illustrate and support your main points. Any time you use
someone else’s words or ideas, you must give credit to that person,
whether you quote directly, summarize, or paraphrase. If you do not
give credit to your sources, it is considered plagiarism, which earns you a failing grade on your paper.

*Finally, you must explain the significance of the quotation you have
chosen even if it is obvious to you, or the reader will be left
wondering why you chose that quotation in the first place.

There are several different methods of incorporating quotations
into your essay.To illustrate, here are several ways to incorporate the
quotation “Many writers omit or improperly use quotations in their essays.”

1. Paraphrase (Indirect quotation)—using different words to express the same idea; do not use quotation marks at all
• Teachers and professors alike find that many students often misuse quotations in their papers.

2.Direct phrase or word quotation— using only one or a few words; use quotation marks around those words only
• Many teachers find that their students “omit or improperly use” quotes when writing papers.

3.MLA author/page citation—author and page in parenthesis
• “Many writers omit or improperly use quotations in their essays” (Watson 43).

4.Full sentence quotation with he/she said before the quotation; place comma before the quotation mark
• Watson claims, “Many writers omit or improperly use quotations in their essays.”

5.Full sentence quotation with he/she said after the quotation; comma replaces period at the end of the quote.
• “Many writers omit or improperly use quotations in their essays,” he argued.

6.Full sentence quotation with he/she said dividing the quotation; commas separate the quote.
• “Many writers,” he admitted, “omit or improperly use quotations in their essays.”

7.Full sentence quotation with he/she said that at the beginning of the quotation; the word that takes the place of the comma
• He affirmed that “Many writers omit or improperly use quotations in their essays.”

8.Full sentence quotation with full sentence introduction to quotation; use a colon before the quote
• Scholars have proven with scientific evidence: “Many writers omit or improperly use quotations in their essays.”

9.Omitting words within a quotation; use the ellipses between (. . .)
• “Many writers . . . use quotations in their essays.”

10.Adding or changing words within a quote; use brackets to set off the change
• “Many writers [often] omit or improperly use quotations in their essays.”

Additional Information about Quotations

1. Plays, novels, long poems, website titles, magazine titles, movie titles, and books should be italicized or underlined.
· The Canterbury Tales
· Shakespeare in Love

2. Articles, chapter titles, song titles, poems, short stories, and essays should be punctuated with quotation marks.
· Alanis Morrisette’s “Ironic”
· Yezierska’s “America and I”
· Langston Hughes’s “I, Too”

3. As a rule, anyone you do not personally know should be referred to by their LAST name—not the

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The Comma

Definition and Function

The comma’s role is to provide clarity
for a reader and to provide a sense of direction for your sentences.
The comma is a slight break or pause, suggesting a transition of some
kind.
Comma usage is in some respects a question of personal writing
style: some writers use commas liberally, while others prefer to use
them sparingly. Most modern North American style guides now recommend
using fewer commas rather than more, so when faced with the option of
using a comma or not, you may find it wise to refrain.

Rules for Comma Usage

Use a Comma to: Explanation Example
Use a comma to separate the elements in a series You may have learned that the comma before the "and" is unnecessary,
which is fine if you’re in control of things. However, there are
situations in which, if you don’t use this comma (especially when the
list is complex or lengthy), these last two items in the list will try
to glom together (like macaroni and cheese). Using a comma between all
the items in a series, including the last two, avoids this problem. 		"He hit the ball, dropped the bat, and ran to first base."
Use a comma + a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so) to connect two independent clauses, Contending that the coordinating conjunction is adequate separation,
some writers will leave out the comma in a sentence with short,
balanced independent clauses If there is ever any doubt, however, use
the comma, as it is always correct in this situation. 		"He hit the ball well, but he ran toward third base."
Use a comma to set off introductory elements It is permissible to omit the comma after a brief introductory element
if the omission does not result in confusion or hesitancy in reading.
If there is ever any doubt, use the comma, as it is always correct. 		Running toward third base, he suddenly realized how stupid he looked."
Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements A "parenthetical element," means a part of a sentence which can be
removed without changing the essential meaning of that sentence. The
parenthetical element is sometimes called "added information." This is
the most difficult rule in punctuation because it is sometimes unclear
what is "added" or "parenthetical" and what is essential to the meaning
of a sentence. 		"The Founders Bridge, which spans the Connecticut River, is falling down."
Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives If you can put an and or a but between the adjectives, a comma will
probably belong there. For instance, you could say, "He is a tall and
distinguished fellow" or "I live in a very old and run-down house." So
you would write, "He is a tall, distinguished man" and "I live in a
very old, run-down house." But you would probably not say, "She is a
little and old lady," or "I live in a little and purple house," so
commas would not appear between little and old or between little and
purple. 		That tall, distinguished, good looking fellow."
Use a comma to set off quoted elements  Because we don’t use quoted material all the time, even when writing,
this is probably the most difficult rule to remember in comma usage. It
is a good idea to find a page from an article that uses several
quotations, photocopy that page, and keep it in front of you as a model
when you’re writing. Generally, use a comma to separate quoted material
from the rest of the sentence that explains or introduces the
quotation:		 Summing up this argument, Peter
Coveney writes, "The purpose and strength of the romantic image of the
child had been above all to establish a relation between childhood and
adult consciousness."
Use commas to set off phrases that express contrast Some writers will leave out the comma that sets off a contrasting phrase beginning with but.  

Some say the world will end in ice, not fire.
Never use only one comma between a subject and its verb. Although readers might pause after the word "oneself," there is no reason to put a comma there.  

"Believing completely and positively in oneself is essential for success."
Typographical Reasons   Between a city and a state [Hartford, Connecticut], a date and the year
[June 15, 1997], a name and a title when the title comes after the name
[Bob Downey, Professor of English], in long numbers [5,456,783 and
$14,682], etc.

Superfluous Commas

Rules for Not Using Commas Example
Do not use a comma to separate the subject from its predicate. WRONG] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15, will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
[RIGHT] Registering for our fitness programs before September 15 will save you thirty percent of the membership cost.
Do not use a comma to separate a verb from its object or its subject complement, or a preposition from its object WRONG] I hope to mail to you before Christmas, a current snapshot of my dog Benji.
She traveled around the world with, a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.
[RIGHT] I hope to mail to you before Christmas a current snapshot of my dog Benji.
[RIGHT] She traveled around the world with a small backpack, a bedroll, a pup tent and a camera.
Do not misuse a comma after a coordinating conjunction [WRONG] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof but, the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.
[RIGHT] Sleet fell heavily on the tin roof, but the family was used to the noise and paid it no attention.
Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements WRONG] The fingers, on his left hand, are bigger than those on his right.
[RIGHT] The fingers on his left hand are bigger than those on his right.

 

Additional Resources

 

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Heterosexist Bias

Avoiding Heterosexist Bias

Summary of Guidelines for Nonsexist Use of Language

Sexual orientation is the preferred term over “sexual preference” and refers to sexual/affectional relationships of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual people

The word “preference” suggests a degree of voluntary choice that is not necessarily reported by lesbians and gay men and that has not been demonstrated in psychological research.

The terms “lesbian sexual orientation,” “heterosexual sexual orientation,” “gay male sexual orientation,” and “bisexual sexual orientation” are preferable over “lesbianism,” “heterosexuality”, “homosexuality”, and “bisexuality”, respectively.

Lesbian and gay male are preferred to the word “homosexual” when used as an adjective referring to specific persons or groups, and lesbians and gay men are preferred terms over “homosexuals” used as a noun when referring to specific persons or groups.

The word “homosexual” has several problems of designation. First, it may perpetuate negative stereotypes because of its historical associations with pathology and criminal behavior. Second, it is ambiguous in reference because it is often assumed to refer exclusively to men and thus renders lesbians invisible. Third, it is often unclear.

The terms “gay male” and “lesbian” refer primarily to identities and to the modern culture and communities that have developed among people who share those identities.

Same-gender behavior, male-male behavior, and female-female behavior are appropriate terms for specific instances of same-gender sexual behavior that people engage in regardless of their sexual orientation

Likewise, it is useful that women and men not be considered “opposites” (as in “opposite sex”) to avoid polarization, and that heterosexual women and men not be viewed as opposite to lesbians and gay men. Thus, male-female behavior is preferred to the term “opposite sex behavior”

When referring to sexual behavior that cannot be described as heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual, special care needs to be taken. Descriptions of sexual behavior among animal species should be termed “male-male sexual behavior” or “male-female sexual behavior” rather than “homosexual behavior” or “heterosexual behavior,” respectively.

Bisexual women and men, bisexual persons, or bisexual as an adjective refer to people who relate sexually and affectionally to women and men. These terms are often omitted in discussions of sexual orientation.

Omission of the term “bisexual” also contributes to the invisibility of bisexual women and men. Although it may seem cumbersome at first, it is clearest to use the term “lesbians, gay men, and bisexual women or men” when referring inclusively to members of these groups.

Use of gender instead of sex.

The terms “sex” and “gender” are often used interchangeably. Nevertheless, the term “sex” is often confused with sexual behavior, and this is particularly troublesome when differentiating between sexual orientation and gender. The phrase “it was sexual orientation, rather than gender, that accounted for most of the variance” is clearer than “it was sexual orientation, rather than sex, that accounted for most of the variance.”


Goals for Reducing Heterosexual Bias in Language

Rule

Example

Reducing heterosexual bias and increasing visibility of lesbians, gay men, and bisexual persons. Lesbians, gay men, and bisexual men and women often feel ignored by the general media which take the heterosexual orientation of their readers for granted. Unless an author is referring specifically to heterosexual people, writing should be free of heterosexual bias.

For Example:

  • Using examples of lesbians, gay men, and bisexual persons when referring to activities (e.g., parenting, athletic ability) that are erroneously associated only with heterosexual people by many readers.
  • Referring to lesbians, gay men, and bisexual persons in situations other than sexual relationships.
  • Omitting discussion of marital status unless legal marital relationships are the object of the writing.
  • Referring to sexual and intimate emotional partners by both male and female pronouns
  • Using sexual terminology that is relevant to lesbians and gay men as well as bisexual and heterosexual people
  • Avoiding the assumption that pregnancy may result from sexual activity

Clarity of expression and avoidance of inaccurate stereotypes about lesbians and gay men.

Stigmatizing or pathologizing language regarding gay men and lesbians should be avoided (e.g., “sexual deviate,” “sexual invert”). Authors should take care that examples do not further stigmatize lesbians, gay men, or bisexual persons (e.g., an example such as “psychologists need training in working with special populations such as lesbians, drug abusers, and alcoholics” is stigmatizing in that it lists a status designation (lesbians) with designations of people being treated.

Comparisons of lesbians or gay men to parallel groups

When comparing a group of gay men or lesbians to others, parallel terms have not always been used. For example, contrasting lesbians with “the general public” or to “normal women” portrays lesbians as marginal to society. More appropriate comparison groups might be “heterosexual women,” “heterosexual men and women,” or “gay men and heterosexual women and men.”

Potentially Problematic Sentences/Phrases

  • Sexual preference
  • The sample consisted of 200 adolescent homosexuals.
  • None of the subjects were homosexual or bisexual.
  • Manuscript title: “Gay relationships in the 1990s”
  • Subjects were asked about their homosexuality.
  • The women reported lesbian sexual fantasies.
  • The male antelopes were bisexual.
  • It was subjects’ sex, not their sexual orientation, that affected number of friendships.
  • Homosexual abuse of children.
  • When the mother is employed, her partner may discover that his share of childcare has increased.
  • AIDS education must extend beyond the gay male population into the general population.
  • Women’s sexual partners should use condoms.
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Paragraph Development

The Paragraph

Except for
specialized paragraphs like introductions and conclusions, paragraphs
are clusters of information supporting the essay’s main point or
advancing the action of the story. Aim for paragraphs that are clearly
focused, unified, well developed, organized, and coherent. A paragraph
should be organized around a main point. The point should be clear to
the reader, and all sentences in the paragraph should relate to it.

A topic sentence, a one-sentence summary of the
paragraph’s main point, acts as a signpost pointing in two directions:
backward toward the thesis of the essay and forward toward the body of
the paragraph" (Rules for Writers 39).

Paragraphs Across the Grade Levels

English I
Students will be able to construct a multi-paragraph paper, with three
body paragraphs. Each paragraph will contain a clear topic sentence and
one dominant idea.

English II
Students will be able to construct a five paragraph, thesis-based
essay, containing three body paragraphs. Each paragraph will contain a
clear topic sentence and one dominant idea that supports the thesis
statement.

English III
Students will be able to construct a multi-paragraph (5+), thesis-based
essay, containing at least three body paragraphs. Each paragraph will
contain a clear topic sentence with one dominant idea divided into
sub-topics that support the thesis statement.

English IV
Students will be able to construct a multi-paragraph (5+), thesis-based
essay, containing at least three body paragraphs. Each paragraph will
contain a clear topic sentence with one dominant idea divided by clear
and sophisticated transitions into sub-topics that support the thesis
statement.

Paragraph Types

Narrative paragraphs relate events in chronological order. In a first-person narrative, the writer is telling his own story, using first-person pronouns (I, me, my, mine, we, us, our). A third-person narrative
is a story that the writer tells about another person or persons, using
third-person pronouns (he, she, they, his, her, him, them).

Descriptive paragraphs attempt to paint a picture with words by appealing to the senses. Information is arranged in a logical order.

Explanatory paragraphs tell what, where, how, why. To
support a topic sentence, this paragraph states or interprets facts,
gives directions, or provides reasons.

Persuasive paragraphs express the writer’s opinion and
contain specific details and information to influence the reader to
adopt an idea or take action.
 

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Formula Writing

Explanation/Rationale

  • Formulaic writing offers a really useful strategy when
    you are struggling with organization, when you are limited by time, or
    when you are learning a writing approach.
  • This is not the
    way writing should be. Writing is something that emerges from the self,
    a form of personalized expression that should not be dictated.
  • Formulas
    are as inappropriate for writing as they are for expressing a feeling
    of profound sorrow at something lost (an elegy) or profound praise (an
    ode)
  • That being said, the AP test is not about writing.
    It is about passing a test. If you have doubts at this point, I’d give
    some serious thoughts to this formula for the prose/poetry passages.
  • If
    you are really worried still, I wouldn’t feel bad about memorizing
    these formulas as an easy way to get through the process of writing.

Introduction

First sentence:
[short phrase from the poem/passage from the prose]: [Author’s] [good
strong adjective], [good strong adjective] language forces the reader
to examine an interesting…
Example:
Black, slack, earthsoup: poet Mary Oliver’s rich, evocative language
forces the reader to examine the question of the nature of life, using
the most unlikely symbol, a swamp.

Thesis

Formula
Using [literary device #1] and [literary device #2], [the author] effectively conveys [statement of theme and prompt focus].

Example:
Using figurative language and tone, Oliver effectively conveys the
profound idea that, while life may appear to bind and trap us, it
always offers the potential for renewal and hope.

Body Paragraphs

Topic Sentence, Argument, Evidence, Analysis (Repeat 2-3 times)

Example Topic Sentence
Oliver’s use of metaphor and simile powerfully suggest a profound connection between the speaker and the swamp.

Argument: A Claim
Oliver’s dominant metaphor equates the swamp with human life.

Evidence: A passage or line reference
From the suggestion that the swamp is the ‘center of everything’ to the closing lines’ recognition of the power of renewal, Oliver reminds the reader that the swamp embodies human experience.

Analysis: Explanation of how the evidence proves the claim
1-2 sentences of analysis connecting the evidence to the claim, then back to the topic sentence.

[Repeat in paragraph as needed; effectively making each sub-argument an
isolated point to prove. This should keep the essays straightforward
and on point] 

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